Chapter – 1 :- The Rise of Nationalism in Europe (India and the Contemporary World – II)

                                 The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Rise of Nationalism in Europe Summary

Chapter 1 of NCERT Social Science History textbook – Indian and the Contemporary World-II is titled as ‘Rise of Nationalism in Europe’. The rise of nationalism in Europe was initiated with the Spring of Nations in 1848. During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about sweeping changes in the political and mental world of Europe. The end result of these changes was the emergence of the nation-state, in place of the multi-national dynastic empires of Europe.

The students will also get to know about the following topics:

1. The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
2. The Making of Nationalism in Europe
   1. The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
   2. What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for?
   3. A New Conservatism after 1815
   4. The Revolutionaries
3. The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848
   1. The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
   2. Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt
   3. 1848: The Revolution of the Liberals
4. The Making of Germany and Italy
   1. Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?
   2. Italy Unified
   3. The Strange Case of Britain
5. Visualising the Nation
6. Nationalism and Imperialism

Factors led to rise of nationalism in europe :- 

Nationalism is the ideological basis for the development of the modern nation-state The French Revolution initiated the movement toward the modern nation-state and also played a key role in the birth of nationalism across Europe where radical intellectuals were influenced by Napoleon and the Napoleonic Code, an instrument for the political transformation of Europe. "Its twin ideological goals, 

The French Revolution and the Idea of Nation 

 Growth of nationalism in France

 Introduction of various measures and practices created sense of collective identity among the people of France.

 Rise of Napoleon and his reforms. Revolutionaries help other peoples of Europe to become nation.

The making of Nationalism in Europe 

 Germany, Italy and Switzerland were divided into Kingdom, duchies and cantones these divisions were having their autonomous rulers.

 Industrialization in England, Emergence of a working class and liberalism.

 After the defeat of Napoleon, the European government follows the spirit of conservations conservative regimes were autocratic Revolutionaries at that time fight for liberty and freedom. E.g. Mazzini,s young Italy and Young Europe.

The age of Revolution (1830- 48) 

Liberalism and Nationalism, occurrence of revolutions in Brussels and Greece and development of cultural movement in Europe, Hunger Hardship and Popular revolt, Demand for constitutionalism and national unification. Rights for women Results- Frankfurt Parliament (May 1848).

Unification of Germany and Italy 

Germany and role of Bismarck and his policy unification of Germany Unification of Italy- Role of Mazzini Garibaldi and victor Emanuel II Separate case and condition of Britain - Glorious revolution of 1688, Act of union of 1707.

Question : 

Explain the concept of a national state

Answer :

Most of its citizens developed a common identity. They shared history. This commonness came as a result of great struggle by the leaders and the common people.

Question : 

Explain the measures and practices creating sense of collective identity among the people of France.

Answer :

The ideas of the father land (la patrie le citioyen (la citizen) a new French flag emphasized the nation of a united community. A new French flag, New hymns were composed, A centralized administrative was set up, Internal customs duties were abolished.

Question : 

Explain the decision of the congress of Vienna.

Answer :

The bourbon dynasty was restored in France, A number of states were set up on the boundaries of France Prussia was given important new territories, Austria got control) of northern Italy, Russia was given part of Poland.

Question : 

Why the 1830s was the year of great economic hardship in Europe?

Answer :

Increase in population, unemployment migration, price rise, stiff competition in the market, Bad condition of peasants.

Question : 

Why did national tensions emerge in the Balkan?

Answer :

Ethnic variation spread of nationalism Disintegration of Ottoman Empire, claim of independence by using history to prove that they had once been independent. Area of intense conflict, Mutual jealousy matters were further complicated

because the Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry.

Question : 

Describe the process by which Germany was unified.

Answer :

By 1848, the popular effort failed to succeed in installing constitutional monarch in Germany. Their after the task for unification of Germany was taken over by Prussia and its chief minister Otto von Bismarck who followed a policy of "blood and Iron" within a period of seven years three were fought with demark Austria and France. These states were defeated. In January 1871 the process of unification of Germany was completed. The Prussian kind William I was proclaimed German Emperor.

Question : 

Describe the process of unification of Italy

Answer :

During 1830s. G. Mazzini decided to make a programme to unite Italy and formed a society young Italy After earlier failures king victory Emmanuel II took to unify the Italian status through war and he got the whole hearted support

of minister Cavour made a tactful alliance with France and defeated Austrians forces in 1859. Now he was able to secure the support of Garibaldi. In 1860 Garibaldi led the famous expedition to south Italy and freed the states from

Bourbon rulers in 1861 before the completion of unification victor Emanuel II was proclaimed the king of united Italy.

Write in Brief

1. Write a Note on:
a) Giuseppe Mazzini
b) Count Camilo de Cavour
c) The Greek War of Independence
d) The Frankfurt Parliament
e) The role of women in nationalist struggles

a) Giuseppe Mazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary. He was born in Genoa in 1807. He was a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. At the age of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He founded underground societies named ‘Young Italy’ in Marseilles and ‘Young Europe’ in Berne, whose members were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German States. He believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So, Italy had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations.

b) Count Camilo de Cavour: Cavour was chief minister of Sardinia-Piedmont state who led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. Like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite, he spoke French much better than he did Italian. He engineered a careful diplomatic alliance with France, which helped Sardinia-Piedmont defeat the Austrian forces in 1859, and thereby free the northern part of Italy from the Austrian Habsburgs.

c) The Greek War of Independence: Greece was a part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century. The struggle for independence amongst the Greeks began in 1821. Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many Western Europeans sharing sympathies for ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

d) The Frankfurt Parliament: It was an all-German National Assembly formed by a large number of political associations whose members were middle-class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans. Its first meeting was convened on 18 May 1848 in the Church of St. Paul at Frankfurt. They drafted a constitution for the German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. The king of Prussia rejected the crown offered by the deputies of parliament and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. As it was dominated by the middle classes who resisted the demands of workers and artisans and consequently lost their support. In the end, troops were called in and the assembly was forced to disband.

e) The role of women in nationalist struggles: The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years. Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this, they were denied suffrage during the election of the Assembly. When the Frankfurt Parliament convened in the Church of St. Paul, women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitors’ gallery.

2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?

Answer

The French revolutionaries took many important steps to create a sense of collective identity among the French people which were:
→ Ideas of la Patrie (the fatherland) and le Citoyen (the citizen) emphasising the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
→ A new French flag, a tricolour replaced the royal standard.
→ The Estates General was renamed the National Assembly and was elected by a group of active citizens.
→ New hymns, oaths and martyrs commemorated in the name of the nation.
→ A central administrative system made uniform laws for the entire nation.
→ Discouraging regional dialects and promoting French as a common language of the nation.

3. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?

Answer

Marianne and Germania were female allegories for the French and the German nation respectively. These female allegories were used to portray ideas such as Liberty, Justice and the Republic. These allegories remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it.

4. Briefly trace the process of German unification.

Answer

In 1848, the middle class Germans tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. But they were repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners of Prussia. After this, Prussia soon became the leader of German unification movement. Its Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck was the architect of the process with support from Prussian army and Prussian bureaucracy. The unification process was completed after Prussia won wars with Austria, Denmark and France over seven years time. In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed the German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.

1. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?

Answer

The 1848 revolution was led by the educated middle class along with the poor, unemployed starving peasants and workers in Europe. In certain parts of Europe such as Germany, Italy, Poland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, men and women of the liberal middle classes took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of nation-states based on parliamentary principles.
The political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals were:
→ Politically, they demanded constitutionalism with national unification. They wanted the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.
→ Socially, they wanted to rid society of its class-based partialities and birth rights. Serfdom and bonded labour had to be abolished.
→ Economically, they wanted freedom of markets and right to property. Abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movements of goods and capital.

2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe.

Answer

Three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe were:

• Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets focused on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings as their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.

• Folk songs, dances and poetry were regarded as the true spirit of the nation. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the project of nation-building. The vernacular language and the collection of local folklore were used to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterate. For example, Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.

• Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian invasion, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere. After the failure of an armed rebellion against Russian rule in 1831, many members of the clergy
in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instruction. As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by the Russian authorities as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

3. Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.

Answer

The development of the German and Italian nation states in the nineteenth century:

• Unification of Germany with the help of Army:  In 1848, an attempt was made to unite different regions of the German Confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. However, this liberal initiative was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, who were supported by the large landowners of Prussia. Thereafter, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its Chief Minister, Otto von Bismarck with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy in the process. Three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark and France ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification. In January I 871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed as the German emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.

• Unification of Italy by a princely house: In the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states. Of these, only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was under the Austrian-Habsburg Empire, the centre was ruled by the Pope while the southern regions were dominated by the Bourbon kings of France. Also, the Italian language had many regional and
local variations. In the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini sought to formulate a coherent programme for a unitary Italian republic and also had established a secret society called Young Italy for the fulfillment of his goals. The revolutionary uprisings in 1831 and 1848 largely failed. Thus, the responsibility of uniting Italian states was now on King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia-Piedmont. The Chief Minister of Italy, Cavour led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. He was able to conclude a diplomatic alliance with France. Also, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers, under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi, also joined the movement. In 1860, these troops marched into south Italy and the kingdom of Two Sicilies. These areas were liberated and later joined with Sardinia. In 1870, Rome was vacated by France and it became a part of Sardinia. Finally, Italy was unified in 1871.

4. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?

Answer

The history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe because:
→ In Britain, the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution.
→ The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones - such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.
→ The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the 'United Kingdom of Great Britian' meant that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland. Scotland's distinctive culture and political institutions were systematically suppressed.
→ The Scottish highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
→ The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country. Catholic revolts against British dominance were suppressed. Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
→ The symbols of the new Britain - the British flag, the national anthem, the English language were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

5. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

Answer

The Balkans was a region of ethnic and geographical variations. It consisted of modern-day Albania, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia, Slovenia, Serbia, Herzegovina and Montenegro. A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkans due to the spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once been independent. The rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to win back their long-lost independence. The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others.

Discuss:

1.Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?

Answer:

1. In the year 1948, parallel to the revolts of the poor, another revolution was happening underway.  Led by the educated middle classes,  the unemployed, the starving peasants and workers in many European countries experienced this revolution of the liberals. Events of February 1848 in France had brought about the abdication of the monarch and a republic based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed
2. In other parts of Europe where independent nation-states did not yet exist – such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-Hungarian Empire – men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification.
3. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles – a constitution, freedom of the press and freedom of association.
4. The issue of extending political rights to women was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had participated actively over the years. Women had formed their own political associations, founded newspapers and had taken part in political meetings and demonstrations.

2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe.

Answer:

Language:

Played a very important role. After the Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere. The Clergy in Poland began using language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instructions. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.

Romanticism:

It was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets generally criticised the glorification of reason and science and focussed instead on emotions, intuition and mystic feelings. They tried to portray a common cultural past as the basis of a nation.

Folk poetry, folk dance, folk songs:

The true spirit of the nation was popularised through the above means. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was an essential part of nation-building.

3.Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.

Answer:

Focus countries – Germany and Italy.

Germany

1. Nationalist sentiments were often mobilised by conservatives for promoting state power and achieving political domination over Europe. This can be observed in the process by which Germany and Italy came to be unified as nation-states
2. Middle-class Germans tried to unite the different regions of German Confederation, but their plans were not materialised due to actions of large landowners called the ‘Junkers of Prussia’. Three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark, and France ended in a Prussian victory. In Jan 1871, the Prussian King William I was proclaimed German emperor.
3. Importance was given to modernising the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany.

Italy

1. During the 1830s, Mazzini sought to unify Italy. He had formed a secret society called ‘Young Italy’ and It had failed. Hence, the responsibility fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II, to unify Italian states through war.
2. Austrian forces were defeated in 1859. Apart from Sardinia-Piedmont, a large number of volunteers had joined the cause under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi. In 1860, they marched to South Italy and managed to defeat Spanish rulers. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as the king of Italy.

4. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?

Answer:

1. Formation of the nation-state was not due to sudden upheaval or revolution. It was the result of a long-drawn-out process.
2. The primary identities of people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.
3. The Act of Union between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain. Scottish people were forbidden from speaking their Gaelic language and from wearing their national dress. Many were driven out of their homeland.
4. Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the UK in 1801. This was achieved by the English helping the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over the Catholics.
5. The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God save our Noble King) and the English language were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

5. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

Answer:

1. It was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro who were broadly known as Slavs.
2. A large part was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Gradually independence was declared from them.
3. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans, together with disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive.

Social Science History Chapters 

Chapter – 1 :- The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Chapter- 2 The Nationalist Movement in Indo-China

Chapter 3 :- Nationalism In India

Chapter – 4 :- The Making of a Global World

Chapter 5 :- The Age of Industrialization

Chapter 6 Print Culture And The Modern World

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